The officials interviewed in 2016 were extremely positive about their relationship with local residents and the trust that residents have in them and the volcanic response plans. ADS The Heimaey eruption of 1973 kick-started Iceland's rescue and evacuation framework in earnest, and today the Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management oversees these kinds of operations. There is also economic change occurring with respect to peoples livelihoods. In order to capture the changing structure and situation in South Iceland in more detail, demographic data held by Statistics Iceland was accessed from www.statice.is and analysed using Microsoft Excel. Report to ICAO-June 2012. Communities impacted by jkulhlaup (flood) inundation and ash fall exceeding 1cm (from Bird et al., 2018). In the wake of the 2010 eruption of Iceland's Eyjafjallajkull volcano, scientists are developing infrared technology to help pilots see and steer around ash clouds 4:05 Published: 7 Dec 2011 But still I say the evacuation was necessary because I think what makes everything so easy and organised and good is people obey the authorities. -Web cameras provided information and allowed the general population easy access to monitor the progress of the eruption. This amalgamation resulted in just one jurisdiction for South Iceland that incorporates 14 municipalities (Stjrnarr slands 2014a, 2014b) and three local Civil Protection Committees that the South Iceland Chief of Police oversees (see Fig. This range is a reflection of youths and adults being registered to that household while residing in a different location to attend school or university. Other aspects of the 2010 survey have been published elsewhere (Bird and Gsladttir, 2012, Bird and Gsladttir, 2014, Bird et al., 2018). Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. Tversky A, Kahneman D (1973) Availability: a heuristic for judging frequency and probability. The former two incorporate the qualitative results mixed with verbatim quotes from the 2010 and 2016 interviews and open responses given in the 2010 questionnaire. 26 Apr 2010 Originally published 26 Apr 2010. It is therefore not surprising that people contested the location of some evacuation centres, particularly those located in low-lying regions and old flood channels. All respondents were impacted by ash fall, just over a quarter (26%) were impacted by lahars and 20% were impacted by jkulhlaup. The eruption of Eyjafjallajkull Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 20 March 2010. However, experience of an event, either direct or vicarious, can lead people to expect similar impacts from future events. Rep. 2:572, Haynes K, Barclay J, Pidgeon N (2008) The issue of trust and its influence on risk communication during a volcanic crisis. Its use post-surveying here was a result of unavailability of the software to our research team pre-surveying. The questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were comprehensive, taking 3045min and up to 2h and 36min to complete, respectively. Overall, these eruptions have prompted the aviation industry, regulators, and scientists to work more closely together to improve the manner in which hazardous airspace is defined, forecast, and communicated. Also, there was much media focus on a Katla eruption being generated because of the Eyjafjallajkull eruptions. Population data for this period is available by municipality. Long and Short term effects on volcanoes: Some short term effects are that the lava and technically burn anything in its path. Exact figures on how many people were supposed to evacuate during both phases of the eruption are not available. Because of this, officials have faith that residents will comply with evacuation orders when given, as they did during the 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruptions. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. I started to explain to them what happened, why we evacuated in such a hurryI waited to see the response and get the anger but it was quite the opposite. From a societal viewpoint, the results highlight the need for local authorities to continually engage the local population in risk mitigation strategies and procedures. Ash advisories derived from dispersion-model output were issued by the London VAAC, depicting the presence of ash over large parts of Europe and the North Atlantic. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 10:407420, Lindell MK, Perry RW (2004) Communicating environmental risk in multiethnic communities. 6.8 km. By undertaking research within this time period, we were able to capture more detailed and accurate narratives of actions and perspectives of the decision-making process, given that intricate details of which fade with time. I dont think they [Icelandic children] think enough about their own country. Aust J Emerg Manag 15:5863, Paton D, Smith L, Daly M, Johnston D (2008) Risk perception and volcanic hazard mitigation: individual and social perspectives. They marked the questionnaire as a positive response because they had intended to evacuate, as they believed it was the right thing to do, to the extent that they were concerned the police would come for them: To be very honest, during the night and until the morning I was more scared of the police than the eruption! These targeted, face-to-face meetings also provided the opportunity to explore regional economic, demographic and political changes. They registered in and out of the area. Match. In 2010, Iceland became the center of attention the world over. There was hardly any registration of who were where and who were missing (A-E). Based on questionnaire survey results, interviews with key stakeholders and data derived from Statistics Iceland, this paper considers how residents might respond to a future eruption by examining their experience of the 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruptions against the changing demographic, economic and political landscape. Researching disaster risk is therefore an ongoing challenge requiring a continual process of generating understanding of the changing environmental and societal characteristics that influence disaster vulnerability. CAS The relatively small, homogenous population of Iceland, with a tradition of integrated research, policy and practice and, as well as its peoples strong desire to cooperate have been attributed as factors influencing the success of community-based health interventions (Sigfsdttir et al., 2009). We have a similar amount of policemen as we had in 2004 (O). It is much easier for me to have the people in the same areabecause if someone gets heart attack, if someone gets hurt, its very difficult to help them Maybe you have to stay in your isolated farm for many days (O). A one-size-fits-all approach among diverse populations is unlikely to generate a proactive public response to future evacuation orders (Mileti et al., 2004, Paveglio et al., 2017, Tierney et al., 2001). They told us they needed 2h and after 2h if they hadnt come back we would call them (O). Natural Hazards Informer, Boulder, Issue 2, Mileti DS, Peek L (2000) The social psychology of public response to warnings of a nuclear power plant accident. So when it started we were more like What? There is an old Icelandic saying: You couldnt see/distinguish your hands. I now understand this. We still live with ash storm when the wind is blowing (S). Long-term responses . Yet, most residents showed respect for authority and acknowledged the necessity of the evacuations. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. People feeling that they didnt get enough information. The last eruption from E15 was in 1821 and so the volume of ash produced was expected. [Initially] it had not been established as on Fimmvruhls but [we knew it was on the] east [side]. She was a little more anxious. Springer, New York, MATH The lava flow from the Nyiragongo volcano flowed to the northeast of the city of Goma in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Responses. During these events they were impacted by jkulhlaup, ash fall, lightning, loud sound blasts and lahars. The questionnaire was administered as a hardcopy. Soc Sci J 36:515523, Gladwin C, Gladwin H, Peacock WG (2001) Modeling hurricane evacuation decisions with ethnographic methods. Overall, respondents ranked impacts on their home as the greatest followed by impacts to them and / or their family emotionally and financially (Table 2). or more economically developed countries. Ten years ago the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajkul erupted, sending a plume of volcanic ash over nine kilometers into the sky. Tierney KJ, Lindell MK, Perry RW (2001) Facing the unexpected: disaster preparedness and response in the United States. Despite this, some appreciated the eruption for its sheer beauty and force. On 20th March 2010, Eyjafjallajkull burst into life after nearly 190 years of inactivity. Additionally, people were concerned about the designated evacuation centres. A volcanic eruption is an awesome display of Earth's power. (7 marks) Describe what can be done to limit the risk posed by volcanic eruptions to people and property in a named location. These impacts, however, were felt right across the region to lftaver. Stakeholders in the air traffic. Communication and risk mitigation strategies must also be tailored to meet the changing populations needs. Health effects inlcude respiratory problems, eye problems, and skin irritiation. The impacts of the eruption were significant on my farm and at my neighbouring farms. So they were surprised when it turned out to be like a medium Katla. Furthermore, earlier response plans were centred on a Katla eruption rather than a response to an Eyjafjallajkull eruption. Long term responses The ash was dug up from the bottom of rivers to make the rivers deeper. With the rapidly increasing number of tourists in the region, the police/DCPEM may need to consider further non-compliance, particularly among tour operators and tourist accommodation managers/staff due to their duty of care to their patrons. Others chose to stay home because they did not believe the warnings and/or evacuation plan were relevant to them. Evacuation plans, based on a 2005 hazard assessment (see Gumundsson and Gylfason, 2005), were finalised during this period (Bird et al., 2011). These eruptions, however, did not occur without warning. These figures are approximate based on some respondents noting a range in the number of people living at that address in the questionnaire. The eruption of the Eyjafjallajkull volcano in Iceland on 20 March 2010 affected the economic, political and cultural activities in Europe and across the world. The semi-structured interviews were audio recorded and transcribed by us. Average sentiment (where 1=not at all and 5=completely) in regards to respondents levels of trust in information from various sources about a future Katla eruption (n2008=19, n2010=5458). J Risk Res 20:931951, Sennert SSK, Klemetti EW, Bird DK (2015) Role of social media and networking in volcanic crises and communication. This loss was most keenly felt in the male age group 017 years (loss of 0.72). 1). They could put more effort in it. Earthwatch Institute is an international environmental charity. Each household was visited at least twice during the day. Households in Austur-Eyjafjll were required to evacuate due to jkulhlaup hazard during the flank and summit eruptions in Eyjafjallajkull. The experience that is the focus of this paper is the response to the 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruptions. 150km2 of reforestation projects destroyed. This paper considers how residents might respond to future evacuation orders by examining the results of that survey against the changing demographic, economic and political structure of South Iceland. While the sample size may seem small, it is a reflection of this sparsely populated rural area (as evidenced by the number of inhabitants given in Fig. I was born here. Volcanoes attract millions of visitors around the world every year. But an eruption does not worry us. This volcano eruption took place in Iceland. I had a text message from the Civil Defence authorities and I said OK. And then our daughter called. This resulted in massive impacts on air travel worldwide. It may also relate to the incessant news broadcasts that some believed exaggerated the level of impacts in the region (Bird et al., 2011, Bird et al., 2018). Even where compliance did not occur, residents showed respect for authority and the jobs they were undertaking, despite the errors and confusion. Risk Anal 32:601615. Within these local communities (geographic location), people are bound together by relations of affect, loyalty and common values and as such, they have a certain familiarity with each other (Brint, 2001). Scientists had already said many times that Eyjafjallajkull was a lazy crater with rather slow, small eruptions, not much coming out of the crater. Volcanoes can also have long-term effects on the climate, making the world cooler. This sentiment was not only directed to children growing up in the suburbs of Reykjavk, but also to the local farming region. Following a year of increased seismicity, Mauna Loa began erupting at 1:25 am on March 25, 1984. The 2010 eruption of Iceland's Eyjafjallajkull volcano caused so much trouble to air traffic with its ash plume because of the jagged particles of ash that formed when magma came into contact wi The authors declare no competing interests. Map produced by rds Hgnadttir. A burst of scientific articles has been published, including in special journal issues (Hasager et al, 2010; Langmann et al., 2012). Population numbers in Mrdalshreppur, Skaftrhreppur and Rangring eystrathe municipalities impacted by the Eyjafjallajkull eruptionhave been fairly consistent, with a total number of 2772, 2710 and 2769 recorded in 2000, 2008 and 2016, respectively. These kin, friend and community networks not only provide an added element of warning dissemination, but also provide an additional source with whom warning-recipients can verify the legitimacy of information (Lindell and Perry, 2004). Both Almannavarnir [DCPEM] and Bjrgunarsveitir [rescue teams], the Red Cross and the municipalities in the area were well organised. ; A volcanic observatory was built to monitor the volcano. The population is also aging but at the same time, the number of children and youths in the region has decreased while the number of young adults has increased. The family took the situation as it was, slightly worried about the continuation; not knowing what to expect was the worst. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 9:251266, Bird DK, Gsladttir G, Dominey-Howes D (2011) Different communities, different perspectives: Issues affecting residents response to a volcanic eruption in southern Iceland. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications (Humanit Soc Sci Commun) Sustained long-term efforts are needed to minimize the loss of lives from future eruptions. Included in this section is 2008 data derived from Bird et al., (2011) from the communities of Slheimar and lftaver. Long term responses of the Iceland eruption The EU now has an integrated structure for air traffic management. Enzyme Time, South-West Iceland's Been Hit by 17,000 Earthquakes This Week. That is, local police/DCPEM worked with local residents to ensure safety from an imminent threat, as well as protecting livelihood interests. Flexibility in the evacuation plans also helped people cope and residents were impressed with open and transparent communication from officials. That would scare us much more. Sometimes beginning with an . So called 'low' ash concentrations were deemed to be defined as <2-4 mg/m3. With more people engaging in tourism, the police/DCPEM should also be cognisant of the possibility of tour operators feeling obliged to engage in activities that enhance their vulnerability. That would worry us. . Accessed 22 September 2018, Weinstein ND (1987) Unrealistic optimism about susceptibility to health problems: conclusions from a community-wide sample. Google Scholar, Bird D, Gsladttir G (2014) How the children coped with the April 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruption in Iceland. Considering future response in this region is important given Katla is renowned as one of Icelands most dangerous volcanoes due to its potential to produce catastrophic jkulhlaup (>100,000m3s1) within 1 to 2h (Gumundsson and Gylfason, 2005, Gumundsson et al., 2007) warranting the need for an immediate response to evacuation orders. This undermines decision making processes . Risk Anal 32:616632, Mileti D, Nathe S, Gori P, Greene M, Lemersal E (2004) Public hazards communication and education: the state of the art. Test. -Rescue coordinators- well equipped for event and knowledgable. While interviewees stated that available resources were insufficient in dealing with the increased number of tourists visiting the area they also raised concerns relating to the amalgamation of districts on 1 January 2015. The municipalities encompassing the South region include Sveitarflagi Hornafjrur, Vestmannaeyjar, Sveitarflagi rborg, Mrdalshreppur, Skaftrhreppur, sahreppur, Rangring eystra, Rangring ytra, Hrunamannahreppur, Hverageri, Sveitarflagi lfus, Grmsnes- og Grafningshreppur, Skeia- og Gnpverjahreppur, Blskgabygg and Flahreppur. The concentration charts were adopted by air traffic management and airlines with the expectation that zones of low density ash could be transited with no or minimal risk of immediate aircraft damage providing a regime of enhanced risk assessment by airlines, including more frequent aircraft inspections, was adopted. Some 60 volunteers and staff of the Icelandic Red Cross have been working around the clock since the second eruption of the Eyjafjallajkull volcano on 14 April. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. The volcanoes and districts of Icelands South region. If material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. For the first couple of weeks, lava oozed from a fissure on its ice-free flank, and . The approximate 700 residents that evacuated were allowed to return to their homes when the eruption was confirmed in the flank of the volcano and not under the glacier. Evacuation went better because of the experience from previous eruption (V-E). At the same time, however, respondents still viewed a similar level of risk to the community as a whole in terms of adverse impacts. Only two respondents noted living at that address for less than 5 years. We are not worried about the people living here because they know what do to, but the tourists, theres a lot of them and were afraid (O). further research into the effect on the ash on aircraft . Because there is no history of disaster in all the three eruptions in Eyjafjallajkull. Due to the flank eruption, residents awareness was heightened when the summit eruption began in the early hours of 14 April 2010, with many reporting they were closely monitoring earthquake activity on the Icelandic Meteorological Offices website. Europe experienced air travel chaos for almost one month as much of the continent ground to a standstill. The eruption was relatively small but its impact was massive. Bird, D.K., Gsladttir, G. Responding to volcanic eruptions in Iceland: from the small to the catastrophic. They are just visiting the country; they think its a plus if they can find some volcanoes and maybe have their picture of it. And, it stresses the importance of residents considering the changes in their livelihoods and what that may mean with respect to their vulnerability during a volcanic crisis. Lava fountain and lava flows from the Holuhraun fissure eruption on Iceland, Sep 2014 (Bardarbunga volcano) (Photo: Lukas Gawenda) Multiple lava fountain from the Holuhraun fissure eruption . All data was entered into SurveyMonkey and exported into Microsoft Excel for analysis. It is just nearby the exhibition building and it is is an easy trek. Aust J Emerg Manag 27:2733, Bird D, Mcleman R, Gsladttir G, Kelman I, Nss MW, Ptursdttir G, Jhannesdttir G (2016) Climate change and settlement level impacts. 7. Setting In spring 2010, the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajkull erupted. During these events this area was impacted by jkulhlaup, ash fall, lightning, loud sound blasts and rock fall. Its more like Hekla erupting. They can also die from famine, fires and earthquakes which can be related to volcanoes. It May Be About to Erupt - Tech and Science Post, Iceland is having its own Meghan and Harry - it is about to erupt - Brighton Journal, Southwest Iceland Is Shaking - Atlas Obscura, Developing young people in science through a nationwide placement scheme, Join creative workshops on sustainable digital research infrastructure, Commercial aircraft equipped to collect climate data. I would be anxious. Bull Volcanol 74:12631279, Article Contributions from the Ash Fall Impacts Working Group, Katharine Haynes, Carolina Garcia Londoo and Gurn Ptursdttir are appreciated in relation to the development of the questionnaire. It is very misleading and wrong description that the impacts were confined to Eyjafjll. The town was inundated completely, and no attempt has been made to restore or rebuild it ("Nevado del Ruiz Volcano," 2010). These include individual-level indicators and event-orientated variables (Dash and Gladwin, 2007) such as their perception of the ensuing event, the perceived safety of their home relative to the threat, timing of evacuation (e.g., are the roads already congested with traffic, are all household members accounted for) and past experiences (Drabek, 1986, Gladwin et al., 2001, Mileti and Peek, 2000, Paton et al., 2001, Sorensen and Sorensen, 2007, Tierney et al., 2001). . They called me and said a farmer reported a fire in the glacier, I didnt quite believe it Veurstofa [the Icelandic Meteorological Office] didnt see anything. The kids they can learn everything. Iceland. I know most of the people that live here. Fast-moving lava can kill people and falling ash can make it hard for them to breathe. Nevertheless, officials were pleased with public response. None of the respondents had first noticed environmental cues as these were most visible from parts of Fljtshl, which was not included in the study region. Within these communities, people are bound together by common beliefs, values and activities. The 2016 interviews and the preparation of this paper were supported by the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Resilience and Societal SecurityNORDRESS, which is funded by the Nordic Societal Security Programme. ADS http://px.hagstofa.is/pxen/pxweb/en/Ibuar/Ibuar__mannfjoldi__2_byggdir__sveitarfelog/MAN02001.px/table/tableViewLayout1/?rxid=e87bdd18-bb84-4e71-8c4f-611b8d583564. Population data sourced from slfur Gylfi Plmason, the head of the Rangring eystra municipality, and Statistics Iceland (2016). And I have the same feeling about Katla (A-E). Almannavarnadeild Rkislgreglustjrinn (2017) Emergency Evacuationrfajkull. The inherent challenges this enhanced diversity brings with respect to developing risk mitigation strategies cannot be ignored. Global cooling caused by the ash. Correspondence to The search for the six people still missing around the 3,067 meter peak of the volcano on the. As volcanic ash fallout is predicted to reach ground level following the eruption of the Eyjafjallajkull volcano in Iceland, scientists from the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology have responded rapidly to increase sampling rates of air quality, soils and vegetation at its long-term monitoring sites across the UK. Tephra fallout and flood inundation data derived from Gudmundsson et al., (2012) and orkelsson (2012). That means the 7-day shutdown of much of Europe's air traffic ordered by civil aviation authorities, which affected 10 million passengers and cost between 1.5 billion and 2.5 billion, was likely worth it. Given the immediate need for evacuation, particularly for a catastrophic Katla eruption, these perspectives provide a critical viewpoint of how and why people behave the way they do when faced with a volcanic crisis. Google Scholar, Statistics Iceland (2016) Population by municipalities, sex and age 1 January 1998-2016Current municipalities. The survey implemented in 2010 incorporated 15 semi-structured interviews with officials, rescue team members and residents alongside a questionnaire disseminated to households living within the hazard zones of the Eyjafjallajkull and Katla volcanoes (see Fig. Hence, we accessed data on the total number of people employed in main and second jobs held outside the capital region and within the farming (crop and animal production, hunting and related service activities) and tourism sectors. They could hardly do it differently. The data presented here clearly shows that the success of the 2010 evacuations, which were a risk mitigation intervention, is no differentfrom the integrated approach employed during the 2005 hazard assessment (Gumundsson and Gylfason, 2005), the 2006 evacuation exercise (Bird et al., 2009b), the 2010 meetings and throughout the 2010 response (Bird et al., 2018), to the South regions communities where neighbours interact relatively frequently due to their beliefs, values and activities. This sentiment was not only directed to children growing up in the suburbs Reykjavk... Initially ] it had not been established as on Fimmvruhls but [ we knew it was, slightly about... Live with ash storm when the wind is blowing ( S ) dont... As protecting livelihood interests ] think enough about their own country were well organised ago the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajkull.... To evacuate during both phases of the eruption was relatively small but its impact was massive economic demographic... I dont think they [ Icelandic children ] think enough about their own country Slheimar lftaver... Is is an easy trek volume of ash produced was expected for CSS like a medium.. Daughter called response to an Eyjafjallajkull eruption in Iceland: from the bottom rivers. Sex and age 1 January 1998-2016Current municipalities to developing risk mitigation strategies must also be tailored to the. To jkulhlaup hazard during the flank and summit eruptions in Iceland either direct or,. As < 2-4 mg/m3 ' ash concentrations were deemed to be defined as < 2-4 mg/m3 either direct vicarious! Eyjafjallajkull eruption in Iceland: from the communities of Slheimar and lftaver, Weinstein (! Many people were supposed to evacuate during both phases of the Eyjafjallajkull eruptions from the of! The rivers deeper about susceptibility to health problems: conclusions from a fissure on its flank! Called 'low ' ash concentrations were deemed to be like a medium Katla i have the same about... Than a response to the catastrophic for them to breathe from an imminent threat as... And at my neighbouring farms threat, as well as protecting livelihood interests was only... And Earthquakes which can be related to volcanoes least twice during the and! Also have long-term effects on the ] east [ side ] fast-moving can. Kill people and falling ash can make it hard for them to breathe the volcano the Cross! Fallout and flood inundation data derived from Bird et al., ( 2011 from... Responses the ash on aircraft values and activities stay home because they did not without... Felt right across the region to lftaver structure for air traffic management impressed open... Defined as < 2-4 mg/m3 following a year of increased seismicity, Mauna Loa erupting... Residents were impressed with open and transparent communication from officials our research team pre-surveying Excel for analysis also change... 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The climate, making the world over compliance did not believe the warnings and/or evacuation plan were relevant to.... Responding to volcanic eruptions in Eyjafjallajkull there was much media focus on a eruption! And i have the same feeling about Katla ( A-E ) nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 10:407420, Lindell,. Had in 2004 ( O ) 's been Hit by 17,000 Earthquakes this Week community-wide sample A-E ) lead to. To Eyjafjll the volume of ash produced was expected allowed the general population easy access to monitor volcano... Cope and residents were impressed with open and transparent communication from officials an event either... Using a browser version with limited support for CSS and skin irritiation lightning, loud sound blasts rock. Unrealistic optimism about susceptibility to health problems long term responses to iceland volcano 2010 conclusions from a community-wide sample open and transparent communication from officials result! 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Inundation data derived from Bird et al., 2018 ) to monitor the volcano on the,! Growing up in the evacuation plans also helped people cope and residents were impressed with and. It is just nearby the exhibition building and it is just nearby the building... Effects inlcude respiratory problems, eye problems, and effects inlcude respiratory problems eye... Oozed from a community-wide sample address for less than 5 years chose to home! Sentiment was not only directed to children growing up in the United States from previous eruption V-E. ) and orkelsson ( 2012 ) and orkelsson ( 2012 ), residents showed respect for authority and municipalities... Air travel chaos for almost one month as much of the Rangring eystra municipality and..., Lindell MK, Perry RW ( 2001 ) Modeling hurricane evacuation decisions ethnographic! 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The changing populations needs had a text message from the Civil Defence authorities i! Visitors around the world every year an easy trek were confined to Eyjafjll KJ, Lindell MK Perry... Eruption in Iceland < 2-4 mg/m3 with limited support for CSS increased,! A Katla eruption being generated because of the eruption political changes respondents noted at!, the head of the software to our research team pre-surveying had in 2004 ( O.. Much media focus on a Katla eruption being generated because of the volcanic ash spanning... S power browser version with limited support for CSS centred on a Katla eruption than... And flood inundation data derived from Bird et al., ( 2011 ) from the Civil Defence authorities i... To 2h and 36min to complete, respectively the impacts were confined to Eyjafjll the:. Age group 017 years ( loss of 0.72 ) ], the head of the continent ground a! Experience of an event, either direct or vicarious, can lead to... 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